PostgreSQL Cheat Sheet

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PostgreSQL is an open-source relational database management system. Known for its robust features, extensibility, and adherence to standards, it is a powerful and widely used database solution for storing, managing, and processing data across diverse environments.

Check out the official PostgreSQL site here: https://www.postgresql.org/

The complete learning path for PostgreSQL. Try out our SQL from A to Z in PostgreSQL track. 7 hands-on PostgreSQL courses with over 800 exercises!

Connecting to a PostgreSQL server

Connect to a PostgreSQL server using the PostgreSQL command-line client ( psql ) and a username. It will prompt you for the password:

psql -U username

To connect to a specific database on a PostgreSQL server with a username:

psql -U username -h host_name -d database_name

To exit the client:

For a full list of commands:

For a list of psql commands:

To export data using the pg_dump tool:

pg_dump -U username -h host_name -d database_name > data_backup.sql

Creating and displaying databases

To create a database:

CREATE DATABASE zoo;

To delete a specific database:

DROP DATABASE zoo;

To list all the databases on a server:

To connect to a specific database:

\c zoo;

To list all tables in a database:

To get information about a specific table:

\d animal;

It outputs column names, data types, default values, and more about the table.

Creating tables

To create a table:

CREATE TABLE habitat ( id INT, name VARCHAR(64) );

To increment the ID automatically with each new record, use the SERIAL data type:

CREATE TABLE habitat ( id INT SERIAL PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(64) );

To create a table with a foreign key:

CREATE TABLE animal ( id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(64), species VARCHAR(64), age INT, habitat_id INT, FOREIGN KEY (habitat_id) REFERENCES habitat(id) );

Modifying tables

Use the ALTER TABLE to modify a table structure.

To change a table name:

ALTER TABLE animal RENAME TO pet;

To add a column to the table:

ALTER TABLE animal
ADD COLUMN name VARCHAR(64);

To change a column name:

ALTER TABLE animal
RENAME COLUMN id TO identifier;

To change a column data type:

ALTER TABLE animal
ALTER COLUMN name TYPE VARCHAR(128);

To delete a column:

ALTER TABLE animal
DROP COLUMN name;

To delete a table:

DROP TABLE animal;

Querying data

To select data from a table, use SELECT .

Learn to query data in PostgreSQL by actually writing code. Complete 130 interactive exercises in our SQL Basics in PostgreSQL course and gain confidence in your coding skills.

An example of a single-table query:

SELECT species, AVG(age) AS average_age FROM animal WHERE id != 3 GROUP BY species HAVING AVG(age) > 3 ORDER BY AVG(age) DESC;

An example of a multiple-table query:

SELECT city.name, country.name FROM city [INNER | LEFT | RIGHT | FULL] JOIN country ON city.country_id = country.id;

Inserting data

To insert data into a table, use INSERT :

INSERT INTO habitat VALUES
(1, 'River'),
(2, 'Forest');

You may specify the columns in which the data is added. The remaining columns are filled with default values or NULL s.

INSERT INTO habitat (name)
VALUES ('Savanna');

Updating data

To update the data in a table, use UPDATE :

UPDATE animal
SET 
species = 'Duck', 
name = 'Quack'
WHERE data

To delete data from a table, use DELETE :

DELETE FROM animal
WHERE >This deletes all rows satisfying the WHERE condition.

To delete all data from a table, use TRUNCATE TABLE :

TRUNCATE TABLE animal;

Aggregation and grouping

Aggregate functions

AVG(expr) − average value of expr for the group.
COUNT(expr) − count of expr values within the group.
MAX(expr) − maximum value of expr values within the group.
MIN(expr) − minimum value of expr values within the group.
SUM(expr) − sum of expr values within the group.

To count the rows in the table:

SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM animal;

To count the non-NULL values in a column:

SELECT COUNT(name)
FROM animal;

To count unique values in a column:

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT name)
FROM animal;

GROUP BY

To count the animals by species:

SELECT species, COUNT(id)
FROM animal
GROUP BY species;

To get the average, minimum, and maximum ages by habitat:

SELECT habitat_id, AVG(age), MIN(age), MAX(age) FROM animal GROUP BY habitat_id;

Copying data

To import data from a CSV file into a table:

\copy animal FROM 'animal.csv' CSV HEADER

To export data from a query to a CSV file:

\copy (SELECT * FROM animal) TO 'animal.csv' CSV HEADER

Casting

To change the type of a value, use the :: operator:

SELECT 25.5::INTEGER; -- result: 26

You may also use CAST() . This is useful when the name of the type contains spaces, e.g., double precision :

SELECT CAST(column AS DOUBLE PRECISION);

Text functions

Filtering the output

To fetch the city names that are not Berlin:

SELECT name
FROM city
WHERE name != 'Berlin';

Text operators

To fetch the city names that start with a 'P' :

SELECT name
FROM city
WHERE name LIKE 'P%';

To fetch the city names that start with any letter followed by 'ublin' (like Dublin in Ireland or Lublin in Poland):

SELECT name
FROM city
WHERE name LIKE '_ublin';

Concatenation

To concatenate two strings, use the || operator or the CONCAT() function:

SELECT 'Hi ' || 'there!';
-- result: Hi there!

SELECT CONCAT('Hello ', 'there!');
-- result: Hello there!

Note that with || , the result is NULL if any of the strings is NULL :

SELECT 'Great ' || 'day' || NULL;
-- result: NULL

In contrast, CONCAT() ignores NULL :

SELECT CONCAT('Good ', 'day', NULL);
-- result: Good day

Other useful text functions

To get the count of characters in a string:

SELECT LENGTH('LearnSQL.com');
-- result: 12

To convert all letters to lowercase:

SELECT LOWER('LEARNSQL.COM');
-- result: learnsql.com

To convert all letters to uppercase:

SELECT UPPER('LearnSQL.com');
-- result: LEARNSQL.COM

To capitalize the first letter of each word in a string, use INITCAP() :

SELECT INITCAP('hello world');
-- result: 'Hello World'

To get a part of a string:

SELECT SUBSTRING('LearnSQL.com', 9);
-- result: .com

SELECT SUBSTRING('LearnSQL.com', 1, 5);
-- result: Learn

To replace a part of a string:

SELECT REPLACE('LearnSQL.com', 'SQL', 'Python'); 
-- result: LearnPython.com

The best place to master PostgreSQL functions is our Common Functions in PostgreSQL interactive course.

Numeric functions

Use + , - , * , / for basic math.

To get the number of seconds in a week:

SELECT 60 * 60 * 24 * 7; -- result: 604800

In PostgreSQL, the division operator / performs an integer division on integer arguments. For example:

SELECT 25 / 4; -- result 6

Avoid integer division by including at least one non-integer argument:

SELECT 25::numeric / 4; -- result 6.25

SELECT 25.0 / 4; -- result 6.25

To get the remainder of a division:

SELECT MOD(13, 2); -- result: 1

SELECT 13 % 2; -- result: 1

To round a number to its nearest integer:

SELECT ROUND(1234.56789); -- result: 1235

To round a number to three decimal places ( NUMERIC arguments only):

SELECT ROUND(1234.56789, 3);
-- result: 1234.568

To get the absolute value of a number:

SELECT ABS(-12); -- result: 12

To get the square root of a number:

SELECT SQRT(9); -- result: 3

Useful NULL functions

To fetch the names of the cities whose rating values are not missing:

SELECT name
FROM city
WHERE rating IS NOT NULL;

COALESCE

To replace NULL in a query with something meaningful:

SELECT domain, 
COALESCE(domain, 'domain missing')
FROM contacts;

COALESCE() takes any number of arguments and returns the value of the first non- NULL argument.

NULLIF

To save yourself from division by 0 errors:

SELECT last_month, this_month, this_month * 100.0 / NULLIF(last_month, 0) AS better_by_percent FROM video_views;

NULLIF(x, y) returns NULL if x equals y ; else it returns the value of x .

Date and time

There are 5 main time-related types in PostgreSQL:

DATE – a date with a resolution of one day; stores the year, month, and day in the YYYY-MM-DD format.
TIME – a time of day with a resolution of one microsecond; stores the hours, minutes, seconds, and fractional seconds in the HH:MM:SS.SSSSSS format.
TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE – a timestamp with the time zone; stores the date and the time along with the corresponding time zone information. The range is from '4713-11-24 00:00:00' BC to '294276-12-31 23:59:59' AD .
TIMESTAMP – a timestamp without the time zone; stores the date and the time. PostgreSQL handles TIMESTAMP values automatically with time zone conversion.
INTERVAL – a duration of time, such as 3 days, 4 hours, and 30 minutes.

The best place to master PostgreSQL functions is our Common Functions in PostgreSQL interactive course.

What time is it?

To answer this question, use:

CURRENT_TIME – to get the current time.
CURRENT_DATE – to get the current date.
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP – to get the current timestamp with both of the above.

Creating date/time values

To create a date, time, or datetime value, write it as a string and cast it to the desired type.

SELECT '2023-12-31'::date;

SELECT '15:31'::time;

SELECT '2023-12-31 23:59:29'::timestamp;

You may also use CAST() or DATE() .

You may skip casting in simple conditions. The database knows what you mean.

SELECT airline, flight_number, departure_time FROM airport_schedule WHERE departure_time < '12:00';

Intervals

An interval is the duration between two points in time.

To define an interval:

INTERVAL '3 days'

This syntax consists of the INTERVAL keyword, a value, and a time part keyword ( YEAR , QUARTER , MONTH , WEEK , DAY , HOUR , MINUTE , SECOND , MICROSECOND ).

You may combine different INTERVAL s using the + or - operator:

INTERVAL '1 year' + INTERVAL '3 months'

Extracting parts of dates

To extract a part of a date, use EXTRACT() :

SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM '2023-12-31'::DATE);
-- result: 12

You may also use DATE_PART() . It extracts specific components from a date or timestamp.

SELECT DATE_PART('day', '2023-12-31'::DATE); -- result: 31

Common arguments include 'day' , 'month' , 'year' , 'quarter' , 'hour' , 'minute' , and 'second' , among others.

Date arithmetics

To add or subtract an INTERVAL from a date , time , or timestamp :

SELECT '2023-10-31'::DATE + INTERVAL '2 months'; -- result: '2023-12-31' SELECT '2024-04-05'::DATE + INTERVAL '-3 days'; -- result: '2024-04-02' SELECT '2023-06-10 07:55:00'::TIMESTAMP + INTERVAL '2 months'; -- result: '2023-08-10 07:55:00' SELECT '2023-02-12 10:20:24'::TIMESTAMP + INTERVAL '-12:43:02'; -- result: '2023-02-11 21:37:22'

To find the difference between two dates in days:

SELECT '2024-01-01'::date - '2023-01-02'::date AS date_diff; -- result: 364

DATE_TRUNC() in PostgreSQL truncates date or timestamp values to the specified time units.

SELECT DATE_TRUNC('hour', '2023-01-15 14:38:00'::TIMESTAMP); -- result: '2023-01-15 14:00' SELECT DATE_TRUNC('month', '2023-12-30'::DATE); -- result: '2023-12-01'

DATE_TRUNC() is often used to group by year, month, week, etc.

SELECT DATE_TRUNC('month', birth_date) AS month, COUNT(*) FROM animal GROUP BY DATE_TRUNC('month', birth_date) ORDER BY DATE_TRUNC('month', birth_date);